Indefinite Faces of Modernism: Notes on Design in Interwar and Socialist Romania

This research investigates the connections and intersections between the notion of Modernism and the development of Romanian design in the interwar and the socialist periods in relation to the European and international context. It also rehabilitates the history of Romanian design, born under the communist regime, suggesting the manner in which a history seen as minor and peripheral is historically and theoretically an integral part of the so-called major, hierarchized, and non-inclusive Western canonical history of modern industrial design. Furthermore, this points to the fact that the revealing of recent and fragile history of Romanian design coincides with the fifty-year anniversary of the first Romanian higher education program of design created in 1969 at “Nicolae Grigorescu” Institute of Fine Arts in Bucharest.1

in Eastern Europe -as part of a larger cultural context, with an emphasis on the role of design in everyday life of societies transitioning to communism -design is currently a very researched topic, as well as a reason for revisiting the hierarchy of modern design, with Modernism itself being under the researchers' scrutiny as a West-European theoretical construct. Consequently, any endeavor to parse out the intersections of Romanian socialist design and Modernism is also an important historiographical contribution in line with the recent interest in reclaiming and integrating socialist design within the broader context and the studies of socialism and modern design. 3

The Modern Movement and the Canon of the History of Modern Design
The most persistent model of modern design history, written in 1936 and very influential until the 1970s, albeit presenting the usual questionable approaches, comes from Britain and belongs to Nikolaus Pevsner,4 one of the first scholars to tackle this topic and relate design to industrialization and the Modern Movement. Western European design is generally seen as part of the paradigm of modernity.
Pevsner was among the first art historians to attempt to build a theory of design, following a historical and conceptual tradition leading from William Morris to Walter Gropius, the founder of the first modern design school, the Bauhaus (1919Bauhaus ( -1933. 5 In Pevsner's account, factors as varied as mass industrialization, crafts, mechanization, standardization, and innovation are presented as equal in terms of importance. 6 His theory of aspects of design (definition, practice, practitioners, factors that influenced it) nonetheless became a canonical history, although its author might not have intended it to become one.
Interestingly, the first edition of his seminal work was published by Faber and Faber in 1936 as Pioneers of the Modern Movement: From William Morris to Walter Gropius, whereas the second edition, published in 1949 by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, was titled Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius. This is illustrative of how the authority of a canonical model of modern design featuring American architecture and design at its center was established and then maintained. It was during this time that MoMA promoted its Department of Architecture and Design and developed its own public policy on design, disseminated through publications, competitions and exhibitions, where design, democracy and mass production were presented as interconnected. It is likely that this was encouraged by the founding of the New Bauhaus in 1937, in Chicago, under the leadership of László Moholy-Nagy, who had emigrated to the U.S. after the Berlin Bauhaus School was closed by the Nazis in 1933.
Pevsner's achievement consisted in his study of the influence of the Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau movements on modernity -understood as linear progress -, as well as in his insight that there was a link between the roots of the Modern Movement and the nineteenth-century design revolution. In addition, he brought together information and ideas about crafts, machines and new materials, on the one hand, and architects and industrial designers perceived as individual personalities that took part in the melting pot of the Modern Movement, on the other hand. In short, Pevsner included the attributes of modernity in the first recorded history of how design took shape as a discipline in its own right.
3 David Crowley and Jane Pavitt, eds., Cold War Modern: Design 1945(London: V&A Publishing, 2008; David Crowley and S. Reid, Style and Socialism: Modernity and Material Culture in Post-War Eastern Europe (Oxford: Berg Publishers, Oxford, 2000), etc. 4 Nikolaus Pevsner (1902Pevsner ( -1983  On revisiting Pevsner's history of design, one finds that the countries of Northern and Eastern Europe are altogether missing from his account, along with other voices and socioeconomic forces that helped create and shape early design. Behind his assumption that the history of design had begun in Western Europe stood geographical and politico-economic rationale. For instance, the Swedish and Finnish theorists, architects and designers -who helped create modern design -were excluded by omission from Pevsner's narrative. On the other hand, there was no mention whatsoever of the V(k)hutemas' (Higher Art and Technical Studios) design events and Constructivist experiments in Soviet Russia. 7 Like the Bauhaus, the V(k)hutemas was formed by the merger of two existing schools, one of applied arts and the other of fine arts, being one of the first institutions to train artist-engineers (designers) using modern methods.
As Victor Margolin, one of the most prominent contemporary historians and theorists of design, claimed as early as 2005 the notion of world history of design is geographically and economically restricted to the industrialized regions -one of the reasons why Western design does not include non-Western approaches to the history of design. 8 Margolin argues for an inclusive notion of world history of design which would open up the current "limited definition of design" to include "the conception and planning of visual and material culture" outside the colonial boundaries of the industrialized West, 9 the same way architectural history and the history of cinema have emancipated by including Asian, non-Western narratives.
It is worth mentioning that within the so-called Socialist Bloc, of which Romania was part, there was a differentiation, a non-monolithical practice of what was heterogeneously defined, from both the inside and the outside, as socialist design -a theoretical construct that referred to the design practiced in societies governed by Soviet-inspired, socialist principles -in opposition with and separate from capitalist design. 10

Modernist (Design) Intersections in Interwar Romania
Efforts to industrialize Romania had older roots. Theoretical and public debates  centred on the relationship between arts, social reform, national statehood, industrialization, and modernity. 11 The spirit of modernity in interwar Romania is found in both the artistic avant-garde and engineering and field of inventions. Allegedly, the first aerodynamic streamlined automobile with wheels mounted inside the body was designed by the Romanian engineer Aurel Persu (1890( -1977( ) in 1923( and patented in Germany (1923 and the U.S. (1927), almost ten years before the aerodynamic Dymaxion car designed by Richard Buckminster Fuller.
Around the same time, a local interest in the Bauhaus School, the pioneering institution that taught and trained architects and modern designers, emerged as Romanian students started applying to study there. For example, the Romanian Oskar Reimer from Timișoara attended the preliminary course (Vorlehre) at the Bauhaus during the winter semester of 1929. 12 Also, an alternative education system was created for what would be later called design, namely the private Academy of Decorative Arts (1924)(1925)(1926)(1927)(1928)(1929), led by Andrei Vespremie and by the painter Max Herman Maxy, which aimed to be in synchrony with the European framework understood as a sign of modernity. 13 Originally founded, it seems, by Max Herman Maxy (a significant promoter of the "Integralist" movement), according to the Bauhaus model of education, under the name of The Studio of Deconstructivist Art, it represented a significant moment for Romania's integration into the European avant-garde. 14 Maxy was interested in the applied arts and constructed a series of home interior design objects -furniture, small household items (teapots, flower vases, ashtrays etc.), carpets, etc. 15 He experimented with different materials for useful everyday items -as in the Bauhaus workshops -combining geometrical forms related to modernist Art Deco aesthetics. (Fig. 1) The engine of Modernism in Romania and the initiator of an important exhibition in 1924, Contimporanul, Marcel Janco was an architect who promoted different types of modernist furniture and theories of International Modernism in the avant-garde magazine Contimporanul. The Romanian exhibition took place in the same year as the Deutscher Werkbund's Form ohne Ornament in Stuttgart, which rejected the historical ornament promoting modern architecture and design instead.
One notable exception and a myth at the same time is the first Romanian car -"affordable for a large number of citizens" 16 -manufactured in 1946 in Reșița, at the factory owned by the tycoon (engineer) Nicolae Malaxa, "the popular automobile (…) that can fit five people, two big suitcases, two small suitcases, transporting them at a speed of 105 km/hour." The body of the car was designed by the architect Stan Bortnowski, 17 and the prototype was constructed by Romanian engineers and technicians under the supervision of engineer Petru Carp. Sporting a modern, aerodynamic shape and an elegant line, probably inspired by soft shell design, the automobile used many innovations as it was meant for rational, serial production, which, however, never materialized -the reinforced body made of steel pipes welded together, the engine placed at the rear along with the differential and the gearbox, the engine cooling system on the ceiling. (Fig. 2 "twenty builders and specialized engineers joined forces and minds to produce the first Romanian automobile. This automobile will certainly not be the most luxurious, or perfect, but it will be nonetheless our automobile, suitable for our wallets and our roads as we know them (…)." 18 This attempt to offer the first affordable automobile produced by the Romanian industry, at the same time a useful object and a symbol of industrial progress (a luxury item at the beginning of the twentieth century), evokes both Henry Ford's economic policy and an ideology akin to that of the National Socialist policies focused on manufacturing "the first people's automobiles" (Volkswagen in Hitler's Germany, Trabant in the D.D.R., Lada in the U.S.S.R., and Lăstun in the Socialist Republic of Romania).
Nicolae Malaxa also worked with Horia Creangă, one of the most important Romanian modernist architects, to build his industrial architecture (automotive factory, 1936-1939, and steel pipe factory, 1936-1938) and with his closest collaborator, Haralamb "Bubi" Georgescu (a significant Romanian modernist architect, established in the U.S.A. in 1947). Horia Creangă and his team were involved in designing the chassis and interiors of locomotives. 19 The local manifestation of the echoes of Modernism in the interwar period and the effort to industrialize the country, in an attempt to move beyond the agrarian economy, gave rise to singular attempts of original Romanian design.

On the Notion of Industrial Aesthetics / Design
One of the main characteristics of the postwar period, which was marked by the nationalization of private property, was the focus on heavy industry as part of the socialist state's five-year plans, as well as the production of consumer goods and household items. Some of these items were original creations, while others were copies or alterations of foreign items or items produced under product licenses.
There were at least two directions for action that worked as catalysts for the emergence of design higher education in 1970s Romania: the state officials and the education professionals, to which overlapping interests and possible connections in the right places were added, as the creation of a design department in a centralized state required the "blessing" of the political apparatus. Also, parallel to arguing in favor of the emergence of the discipline of design in Romania, debates, discussions, and round tables were organized around the definition of design, which had been for a while referred to as industrial aesthetics (mirroring the French understanding 20 but above all the Soviet one 21 ).
18 Ştefan Bortnowski's archive. The prototype of the Malaxa automobile is likely to have been manufactured in Reșița, at a factory nationalized on June 11, 1948, along  These principles and ideas were promoted by people in management positions in the state apparatus, by Marxist-trained aestheticians, and by an ambiguous figure, an opportunist with ambitions as a Party activist ([engineer?] Iulian Crețu), who held management positions in the Ministry of Light Industry and attempted to promote industrial aesthetics and to disseminate the idea of the beautiful in relation to the products of light industry.
The Western English origin of the term "design" complicates the history of the field, which is marked by difficulties and uncertainties: the word design (sometimes spelled dizain in Romanian) entered the everyday vocabulary in 1974, at the time of the National Design Seminar. Thitherto, terms such as industrial aesthetics or industrial art or industrial forms or useful forms had been used. As a result, for a long time the terms artist working in industry, artist decorator, industrial creator, draughtsman and constructor were the professional equivalents in Romania. A significant factor was the convergence between design theory and design pedagogy as promoted in specialized magazines -with Arta being the main outlet, as well as a few shortlived publications containing resources like Estetica Industrială ( During the Design-cultură-civilizaţie, definire, strategie, impact social colloquium dedicated to design and organized in 1979 by Arta magazine 25 together with the Institute of Fine Arts in Bucharest, two camps stood out: the theorists -art historians, sociologists, etc. -and the practitioners, with diverging approaches to the definition of design and the designer. The former used definitions and arguments borrowed from Western literature and peppered with the socialist ideology of the New Man, while the latter were more pragmatic, drawing on their teaching practice and actual work experience in the industry.
Theoretically, and ideally, design was a field of culture that helped create the New Man in everyday life and improve the quality of life, as well as a must for every economy based on industrialization and productivity: "design is a social and cultural good" inextricably tied to quality 26 ; "[d]esign is indispensable to any and all processes of modernization of production" 27 ; "an inexorable necessity for societies that built themselves an industry." 28 On the other hand, specialists like Ion Bitzan, the head of the Department of Design in Bucharest (1977Bucharest ( -1990, defined their profession, in between the lines, as an ideology-free field, owing more to functionality, economics and aesthetics, where the concrete stages of planning, distribution and marketing reflect the complexity of conception in the design process. Design solves problems, involves responsibility, and, as a profession, it must be visionary and enduring. 29 Design In the note to the Romanian edition, signed "the Publisher" (sic!), we read about the "industrial aesthetic activism" of the Bauhaus School and how "Walter Gropius understands it very well, while Giulio Carlo Argan makes a point of it, that the industrial aesthetic activity is a rational and ideal means of building an equitably organized society, which can very well be the main factor of progress for humanity, as long as a moral justification is embedded in it." 30

The Bauhaus School Experimental Pedagogy -Timișoara's Fine Arts High School
The key avant la lettre moment in the evolution of Romanian design was the activity of the "Constructivists" at the Fine Arts High School in Timişoara, from 1970 to 1974, the genuine spearhead and promoter of Bauhaus-inspired pedagogical experiments. Andreea Flondor's excellent study tries to identify the core elements of the pedagogy and the spirit of the Timişoara school and to systematize the documents preserved from that time: the experimental curriculum used from 1970 to 1974 and its echoes over the following decade. 31 At the heart of the new curriculum was the Grammar of Forms or the Study of Form as the basis of any serious art education, a model later replicated by the Department of Industrial Forms at "Nicolae Grigorescu" Institute of Fine Arts in Bucharest. From Flondor we learn that: "The Study of Form was taught consistently in the four years of secondary education, even as the students followed their own specializations, as it was deemed a discipline centered on study and research. It had a formative purpose very much like the Bauhaus' Vorlehre (preliminary course)." 32 The activity at the Fine Arts High School in Timișoara is detailed in one of the official specialized publications of that time, Estetica Industrială (Industrial Aesthetics), 33 describing the members of the Sigma1 group, who taught at the school, as a true "force of production." 34

Industrial Forms / Design Higher Education in Bucharest (1969) and Cluj-Napoca (1971): Bauhaus-Related Syllabi
The emergence of the Romanian school of design and the use of an appropriate terminology are connected with the "openness" that the Communist Party allowed itself over the period of one decade (1964)(1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974). This was in conjunction with the legitimization of the profession of designer in socialist Romania to which contributed the efforts of architects educated in the modernist spirit, specialists in the field of art and representatives of the authorities (who promoted the notion of design in direct relation to socialist industrialization) convinced of the need for design in industry and eager to improve the quality of life. Chair for the Study of Form (STUFO) at the Institute of Architecture in Bucharest was set up, the Department of Industrial Forms, later known on and off as the Department of Design, was established at the Faculty of Decorative Arts of the Institute of Fine Arts in Bucharest (because the new discipline was related to the human being as much as fine arts). Its structure would be preserved mostly unchanged throughout time, along with its programs in set design, textiles, ceramics, glasswork and metalwork.
The Bucharest Department of Design was the result of sustained efforts by a group of committed practitioners, architects and artists, especially painters, who laid the groundwork and trained alongside their students: architect Paul Bortnowski, 35 who taught in the Stage Design program at the National Arts University, while being officially employed by the National Theater in Bucharest, and the first head of the newly established Department of Design, 1969Design, -1974; painters Ion Bitzan, 36 a remarkable, dedicated professor, head of the Department from 1977 to 1990, and later Dean of the Faculty of Decorative Arts and Design from 1990 to 1997, and Vladimir Şetran 37 ; graphic artist I. Hainoroc Constantinescu. 38 Among them, Ion Bitzan stands out as an exceptional figure; he was recently rehabilitated as a representative of the neoavant-garde, conceptualism, and international minimalism. 39 An outstanding Professor, he made an essential contribution to design higher education, teaching and supervising workshop and diploma projects and thus leaving his mark on many generations of graduates.
The creation of the Department of Industrial Forms as part of the Faculty of Decorative Arts in the Ion Andreescu Institute of Fine Arts in Cluj-Napoca in the early 1970s is connected to Virgil Salvanu's (the first head of the Department and a functionalist architect) passion for design. 40 He ran the workshops, taught Descriptive Geometry and Perspective, Design and Furniture History; he gathered around him a group of professors from the other specialties at the Institute of Fine Arts and the University in Cluj-Napoca.
Similarly designed in Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca, the original four-year program was modeled after the Bauhaus curriculum. 41 It included courses such as Study of Color, Drawing, Introduction into Design, Design-Visual Communications, Design-Product-Ambiance, Design-Working with Materials (practical), Three-dimensional Structures, Ergonomics, Psychology of Form, Modeling and Model-Making, Materials and Industrial Processes, Aesthetics, Marketing, Art and Design History (special course), etc. Later, they added one year of specialization quite similar to an MA program. The new program placed the study of form, color and drawing at the center of the curriculum, considering them the basis of any serious art education. (Fig. 3, 4) 35 Paul Bortnowski (1922Bortnowski ( -2007 was an architect (Faculty of Architecture in Bucharest, 1949) who made an essential contribution to design, film set design (starting in 1951), and theatre techniques (starting in 1956). He taught and supervised workshop and diploma design projects; he also set forth a coherent development policy for design as chairman of the Design Committee within the Union of Visual Artists. He also chaired the Romanian Center for Design (1979). 36 Ion Bitzan (1924Bitzan ( -1997 was a painter and alumnus of "Nicolae Grigorescu" Institute of Art in Bucharest. He was the recipient of numerous awards and had national and international exhibitions -at the Venice Biennale (1964,1997) and the Sao Paulo Biennale (1967,1969,1981   was an architect who studied at the Polytechnics in Budapest (1942Budapest ( -1944, the Faculty of Architecture in Bucharest (1948). From 1948, he taught at Ioan Andreescu Institute of Fine Arts in Cluj-Napoca. 41 Interview with Alexandru Alămoreanu, 2012. Correspondence with Vlad Bortnowski, September 2019. 44 In 1955, under the 1948 was created as a post-secondary education institution where teachers and students who were not allowed to teach or study at the Faculty of Architecture for political reasons would take refuge. Ana Maria Zahariade, Arhitectura în proiectul comunist. România 1944-1989(Bucharest: Simetria, 2011 Correspondence with Marcel Puţureanu (Klamer), 2013. The extent to which the structure of design education in Bucharest adhered to the Bauhaus philosophy, we learn from professor Bitzan's presentation at the 1979 Design-cultură-civilizaţie, definire, strategie, impact social colloquium in Bucharest. The content of the curriculum was to focus on three interdependent and correlated components: the artistic component, meaning working with specific elements to design the form of the product; the practical component, aimed at familiarizing the student with different materials and technologies; and the theoretical component, focused on the understanding of problems and the use of abstract notions to find the best solutions in the problem-solving process. 46 (Fig. 6) The news of the four-year program, the three specializations and the first Romanian design school projects of the Bucharest school reached Eastern Europe through the East-German magazine form+zweck. The professors' teaching activity included translating excerpts and discussing design concepts, methods and ethics and responsibility issues raised by niche Western theoreticians and practitioners -Victor Papanek 48 (currently considered an activist designer, one of the 46 Ion Bitzan, "Design-cultură-civilizaţie, definire, strategie, impact social" colloquium, Arta 11-12 (1979)  most influential pioneers of ecological and social design). 49 They would also use Romanian translations of the latest works in modern design theory at that time as teaching materialse.g., Christopher Jones, Design. Metode și aplicaţii [Design Methods. Seeds of Human Futures] (Editura Tehnică, Bucharest, 1975). 50 The professors made efforts to keep up with Western developments in the field of design and to ensure that the designers were well integrated in production, given the limitations imposed by the socialist ideological context. The utility and quality (with access to up-to-date information to the extent possible) of design education in Bucharest are perceived differently depending on where the designer has practiced.
Alexandru Manu, who left Romania in 1978, right after graduating, believes that it was precisely the lack of information and a real connection to the market, the producer and the end users, as well as his lack of internalization of the social role of design that made him a competitive and successful designer in the West. 51 Decebal Scriba, also in the first class to graduate, believes however that the professors were connected to the international design scene and successfully conveyed some of the spirit of Modernism to their students: "If we agree that both the Bauhaus experiments and the American design school, in the spirit of which we were trained for the most part, integrated the idea/concept of Modernism, then we can safely say that we were -at least the first cohorts graduating from the Department of Design -shaped, among others, by Modernism." 52 (Fig. 7,8,9) Craft +/-Design Another issue that further complicated the status of Romanian design and designers was the lack of continuity with the tradition of the Arts and Crafts schools. There was no pre-socialist design tradition that the Romanian socialist design school could claim or reject, or which could serve as its foundation. 53 Discursively, this break with the Arts and Crafts School tradition is evocative, and this is no exaggeration, of Nicolaus Pevsner's claim that the Arts and Crafts movement played a rather transitory role, not at all decisive, in the shaping of modern design linked instead to industrial progress and mass production.
In the early days of the school and later, there was no talk of this lack of tradition, perhaps also to avoid to further complicate the context in which design was taught and practiced. According to Decebal Scriba, "this was due to a simplistic approach to the designer profession, even if the association with the Arts and Crafts School tradition was not without merits." 54 In a discussion of the relationship between modern design and peasant household items (understood as "folk design"), Paul Bortnowski admitted that design was late to emerge in Romania due to the country's industry lagging behind during the interwar years, and the "aftereffects" of the lag, as well as to a certain reluctance to change from the art schools, which were very much focused on the academic model and had but a weak contact with the Bauhaus.
Further, "our urban professions lacked the well-developed structure and the long tradition of our rural crafts" unlike the Scandinavian countries where, for instance, the (rural) crafts organized into guilds complemented the (urban) industrial activities. 55 Romania experienced "discontinuity between craft-based and industrial design." 56 This, along with the need to avoid any ideological faux pas, might explain why the relationship between rural craftsmanship (tools, household items, furniture) and modern design (with its integrated conception and focus on industrial production) was set aside.

Notes on Designers in the Socialist Industry
After graduating, the designers' status was at best uncertain. Although they received general training in design, they were "integrated" via centrally assigned jobs in various industrial facilities all over the country, where they faced specific challenges, some of the designers having to specialize in several industries in time. The profession of designer was not included in the official nomenclature of professions in socialist Romania.
The wish to design and manufacture new products -at first under a license, as it was the case of the Dacia 1100 and the Dacia 1300, both car models produced in the late 1960s-1970s under an official Renault license and with French expertise -turned into a full-blown obsession with independently manufacturing a reduced engine capacity, small-size, dynamically shaped Romanian car that would be an affordable and reliable solution for Romanian urban residents. The designers carried out their task as professionally as they could, given the decisionmaking system and technological limitations. They participated in the attempts to design and manufacture Romanian objects as commissioned by the Communist Party, e.g., the Dacia 500, Lăstun model, designed as a "people's car" with a very small engine capacity. A very expensive project carried out by a complex team of specialists, the Lăstun was ultimately a failed project because of the lack of materials and technology-although the car was forcefully patented in 1986. Radu Teodorescu was in charge of designing the body of the Lăstun, while Adrian Marin designed the interior according to ergonomic and functional principles. 57 (Fig. 10) In theory, the Lăstun had a minimalist shape, like other similar car models designed in the 1980s; it was fuel-efficient, lightweight, reasonably priced, and easy to handle. In practice, the manufacturer and the users were faced with high costs and technology that used low-quality materials, sometimes "makeshift" technology, resulting in adulterations that went as far as the shape and the chromatic range designed by Radu Teodorescu. 58 This manufacturing debacle showed that the Romanian industry needed retrofitting, while at the same time it put an end to the design process.
The regime's ambition to manufacture "original Romanian products" was in fact meant as a display of the utopian power and the autonomy of the socioeconomic system of the Romanian Socialist Republic (including the manufacture of a "car for everybody") rather than to employ design consistently as a resource suited to a strategy for the masses.

Concluding Remarks
There is a two-fold complexity at work in the manifestations of design in Romania, as seen through the lens of Modernism. First, in pre-and interwar Romania, one finds a subtle connection between a long-term modernization process, as experienced throughout the Romanian society, whose aim was the synchronization with Europe and the achievement of modernity (the nation-state, industrialization, legal and social reform, etc.), and the spread of the notion of design through experiments and exemplary endeavors, albeit few and far between. From this perspective, the process of integration into modernity under the influence of the West also included manifestations that pertained to the democratization of access to everyday products.
Secondly, in postwar Romania, under the new communist rule, the emergence of design higher education (in 1969 in Bucharest and1971 in Cluj-Napoca) and professional designers fitted the official vision of the socialist state -according to which design would lend legitimacy to industry and industrialization. In parallel, the vision of the founding fathers of the Romanian design school (architects and painters most likely connected to a modernist education) mirrored the international concerns with how modern design was to be taught (the Romanian syllabus was inspired by the Bauhaus pedagogical model). Romanian designers attempted to connect with the international reality, constantly raising the issue of synchronization in economic development in their official discourse, while, unofficially, they spoke about how design cannot compensate for the poverty of material resources and technological deficiencies of a ruined economic system.
In the context of non-competition, artificial demand and inadequate supply, the natural design system that exists within a free market -designer -producer -user -was short-circuited. This is why following the 1989 events Romanian designers (assuming social and civic responsibility) experienced moments of confidence and effervescence, trying to promote design as a resource in economic and social development.
To conclude, Romanian design was born "modern" in a totalitarian state, supported by a weak economy and a backward industry dominated by heavy industry (which aspired to be on the same level with other states, be they socialist or capitalist), and dedicated only in theory to the people. In other words, the opposite of the European and North American concept of modern design, which came into existence at the same time as real industrial progress, mass production, and the idea that everyday products should be accessible to as large a number of people as possible.